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SUGAR 




THE NATIONAL CITY COMPANY 
NEW YORK 






nS U 1823 



^^- ^/ol 



CopyriRht. 1922 

The National City Company 

N>w York 



FOREJFORD 

The purpose of this booklet is to acquaint the gen- 
eral public with the more important economic aspects 
of a great basic industry'. 

The sugar industry may be divided into three prin- 
cipal phases — agricultural operations, manufacture of 
raw sugar, and refining. Only the first two phases are 
given special treatment in the following pages as the 
refining of raw sugar is, for the most part, a distinct 
industry warranting separate presentation. 

We are chiefly indebted to Willett & Gray's "Weekly 
Statistical Sugar Trade Journal" for the sugar statistics 
herein presented. 



The accuracy of the statistics and statements con- 
tained in this booklet is not guaranteed, but they have 
been compiled from sources zvhich we regard as reliable. 




THE LAND OF SUGAR 



V^xUBA is essentially * * * a marvelously 
rich tropical island garden supplied by Nature 
with all the ingredients needed to maintain its 
fertility for [many centuries to come." 

— W. F. Johnson in "Histor\' of Cuba." 




Sugar-A Basic Industry 

SUGAR is a commodity in universal demand because, directly and indi- 
rectly, it is an indispensable modem food. Once a luxury available only 
to the favored few, sugar today forms an important part of the every- 
day diet of the masses. Its fundamental food value, however, is probably 
not generally realized. Yet dieticians tell us that one pound of sugar con- 
tains 1860 heat calories as compared with 1110 for roast beef, 1640 for wheat 
flour, 635 for eggs, and 325 for whole milk. 

Competitive ^^ ^^ ^^^^ known that glucose, grape sugar, maple sugar, 

Position of substitute syrups, and honey serve to some degree as com- 
Sugar petitors of sugar, but generally these sweetening materials sell 

chiefly on their own special merits, rather than as substitutes for sugar. 
Even saccharin cannot be regarded as a substitute, for it has no food value. 
Probably more than 80% of the total quantity of sweetening materials con- 
sumed annually in the United States consists of sugar or its derivatives. 
On the whole, therefore, sugar is an essential commoditv of everv-day use, 
enjoying a position of substantial monopoly. 



Stability Few industries have such a constantly expanding and 

of Sugar stable demand for their product from the consvuning public. 

Demand q-j^^ demand for sugar expands with the growth of population 

and rising standards of living. The physical volume of sugar consumed is 
apparently little influenced by the ups and downs of the business cycle. 
Even in periods of abnormally high prices, we continue to buy sugar for our 
imperative requirements, and oiu* total consumption either remains station- 
ary or declines only a little under such conditions. When prices are lower, 
increased quantities are consumed. The sugar industry, unlike many other 
industries, has a fundamental advantage in the growth, stability and recurrent 
nature of the demand for its products. 



. , , Between two-thirds and three-fourths of our annual sugar 

Household ..... , , , i t 

and Non- consumption is for direct household use. In recent years, 

Household the non-household use of sugar has also become important. 

In 1917, it was estimated that manufacturing use of sugar 

represented 966,000 tons, of which 350,000 tons were for confectionery, 

135,000 tons for soft drinks, 100,000 tons for condensed milk, and 64,000 tons 

for ice cream. Since 1917, however, with the advent of prohibition, there 

has been a notable expansion in non-household use. For the present year, 

it is said that 130,000 tons of sugar will be used in the manufacture of ice 

cream alone, while soft drinks, confectionery, and bakery products will also 

show a substantially increased consvimption of sugar. One needs only to 

consider the increased sale of confectionery, soft drinks and ice cream in recent 

years to realize the present and potential importance of this demand to the 

sugar industry. 



Investment ^^^ broad basic character of the sugar industry has caused 

in Sugar investors to place millions of capital in the production and re- 

Industry fining of sugar. This is true not only for those areas in which 

the United States is particularly interested, but also for other great producing 
regions. It is said that more than $1,000,000,000 has been invested by Amer- 
icans in the sugar industry of Cuba alone, while the beet sugar industry of 
the United States represents an investment of perhaps $173,000,000, and our 
cane industry $33,000,000. The cane sugar industry of Porto Rico repre- 
sents an investment of nearly $60,000,000; Hawaii $209,000,000; and the 
Philippines, $71,000,000. Only an industry of proven financial merit could 
have recruited such tremendous sums for its exploitation and development. 



The Sugar Beet 

The commercial sugar of the world is obtained from the juice of the 
sugar beet and the sugar cane. The sugar cane is by far the older source 
of sugar, and its history may be traced down to remote periods of antiquity. 
The extraction of sugar crystals from the juice of the beet is usually ascribed 
to Marggraf, a Prussian chemist who completed his first successful experi- 
ment in 1747. Supported by royal bounty, his successors improved the 
processes of extraction, and in 1799 at Cunem in Silesia, the first beet sugar 
factory in the world was constructed. The beet sugar industry was further 
stimulated by Napoleon, who established technical schools in 1811, and ap- 
propriated funds for the development of the industry. However, we are 
here less concerned with the historical than the practical economic aspects 
of the sugar industry. 

Su^nT "The sugar beet," says the United States Tariff Commission, 

Content "is a highly specialized product of careful selection in breeding. 

In the early years of the nineteenth century, when the beet- 
sugar industry was established in France, the beets contained from 5 to 6 
per cent sugar. American grown beets now average from 14 to 19 per cent. 
Until very recently American farmers have been dependent upon imported 
seed, chiefly from Germany and Russia." Successful production of sugar 
beets reqvxires an adequate supply of cheap and suitable seed and production 
of seed requires a great deal of manual labor and expert scientific supervision. 
In seed culture as well as beet sugar production, Germany still leads the world. 

ggg|. The seeds of the sugar beet are planted in the spring of the 

Cultivation year and the beets mature in the early fall. After the young 
beets come through the soil, they must be carefully thinned, so 
, as to permit growth to the proper size. During the growing season, weeds 
must be checked and the soil kept loose by cultivation. Beet culture is 
attended with the usual agricultural risks, such as lack of sunshine, drought, 
frost, and pests. Apparently the sugar beet must be raised in temperate 
regions for cvdture in warmer climates is not feasible because of decreased 
sugar yields. In the beet stigar industry, there is always the ever present 
possibility of reduction of production due to the cultivation of more profitable 
crops. Thus, if wheat prices are high and sugar prices are low, the wheat 
areas will be extended and the sugar beet areas will be reduced. In order to 
preserve the fertility of the soil in which sugar beets are grown, it is necessary 
to practice rotation or to use large amounts of commercial fertilizers. In 
some regions the beets are grown on irrigated lands. 

7 




I lie 
^1'' aH: ical dcs 



The Suj^ar Cane 

The sugar cane has been described as a "perennial 
the cultivation of which is confined to the warmer 
of the earth." Disregarding the details of botan- 
cscription, it will serve our purpose to note that the 
stalk of tlie cane plant is roughly cylindrical, with joints 
at intervals of four to ten inches. The diameter of the 
stalk varies from one-half to three inches. Under some 
conditions, the sugar cane may attain a height of thirty 
feet, but one authorit}' gives the average length of the 
stalk of a well grown croj) as about twelve feet, and the 
average weight per stalk as between six and seven pounds. 
The percentage of sugar content varies from nine to fif- 
teen per cent of the weight of the cane, depending upon 
the variety and the conditions of its growth. Usually, 
in the initial years of growth, the sugar content is some- 
wiiat less than in the later vears. 



Cane 
Cultivation 



Sugar cane is raised by planting cuttings from the top part 
of the cane stalk. Around each joint of the stalk arc several 
buds which, when the cutting is planted, throw out numerous 
shoots or stalks of cane. Unlike the sugar beet, it is not always necessary 
to replant the sugar cane each year as several crops are often cut from one 
planting. The first crop is known as the "plant crop" and the succeeding 
cro]) which rises from the stubble of the first planting is known as the 
"ratoon crop." It may be followed by several ratoon crops. Some climatic 
and soil conditions make necessary a highly scientific and intensive system 
of cviltivation, but there are other semi-tropical regions so bountifully 
endowed with natural advantages that only slight attention is required for 
successful cane culture. 



Beet vs 
Cane 



Due largely to a system of government bounties, there was 
a time in the history of sugar production when approximately 
65% of the world's output consisted of beet sugar. For many 
years, however, beet sugar has been of declining importance as compared 
with cane .sugar. In the season 1899-1900 beet sugar represented 64.9% of 
world production; but in 1913-14, only 47^f. The output of cane sugar 
has doubtless been partly stimulated by the decline of beet production during 
the war, but even prior to the war the cane sugar industry was off'ering in- 
creasing and efi'ective competition in the sugar markets of the world. 

8 



Sugar Crops of the World 

Sugar is produced in many coimtries. It is significant that with all of 
the stimulus given to the sugar industry during the war, there has been no 
world overproduction of the commodity. In the following table the pre-war 
and recent crops of cane and beet sugar are presented: 



Total Production 

I Thousand Tons) 
Season Cane Sugar 

1912-13 9,290 

1913-14 9,802 

1914-15 10,177 

1919-20 11,914 

1920-21 12,001 

1921-22 12,457 



Beet Sugar 


Total 


8,918 


18,208 


8,634 


18,436 


8,306 


18,483 


3,255 


15,169 


4,676 


16,677 


4,986 


17,443 



Deficit in 

World 

Production 



The estimated world production of cane and beet sugar for 
the season of 1921-22 is approximately 1,000,000 tons under 
the figure for the crop year 1914-15. World production and 
consumption of sugar have not yet been restored to pre-war standards aside 
from any allowance for increased demand due to the growth of population. 
The war stimulus given to the cane industry has not resulted in any great 
abnormal expansion in physical production. In fact, the statistics show 
that it has had only a consistent and healthy growth in annual output through- 
out the entire period. 



20 






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SEASON 



Beet Sugar on the Continent 

The great center of beet sugar produelioii is the continent of Europe, 
particularly Gemiany. The I'stiniated world output of beet sugar for the 
season 1921-22 was nearly 4,0U0,UUO tons under that for the season of 1912-13, 
due chiefly to the apparent inability of the European industry to regain its 
pre-war standing. It seems to be the consensus of opinion that it will be 
many years before this restoration may be accomplished. In the following 
table we have presented the estimates of Willett and Gray, sugar statisticians, 
regarding European beet svigar i)roduction for the season 1913-14 and 1921-22 
with the percentage relationship of tlie latter to the former croji. 

Kiiropean Beet Sugar Production 

Thousand Tons 

% 1921-22 crop 
I9I3-I-* 1921-22 to 1913-14 crop 

Germany 2,618 1,330 54% 

Czecho-Slovakia , ,_, 660 ^.q^ 

Austria and Hungary \^'°*" 79 **'' 

France 717 278 39% 

Belgium 229 300 131% 

Holland 229 376 164% 

Russia and Poland 1,688 274 16% 

Sweden 137 227 165% 

Denmark 146 145 100' ; 

Italy 305 200 66' ,' 

Spain 169 135 80^^ 

„, The table indicates that Germany, Russia, and Poland and 

Slow . - 

Recovery Austria Hungary were the most miportant pre-war beet sugar 

of Beet producers. Gennany's estimated 1921-22 production was only 

54% of her pre-war output, and Russia and Poland together 
produced only 16% of their former output. While Czecho-Slovakia has re- 
vived her sugar industry with considerable energy, her total output was only 
abovit 39%, of the foimer output of Austria Himgary. IMost of the produc- 
tion in 1921-22 for Russia and Poland was for Poland alone, and to what 
extent the Russian industry may recover is extremely problematical. 

"There are certain factors which tend to retard the recovery 
Retarding °^ Europe's industry," says Facts About Sugar, "and which 
European may ])re\-ent it from regaining its fonner relative importance. 
j^^^*^ Studies of crop statistics for the past seasons show that the 

average yields have been constantly below those of the 
years before the war, reflecting a depletion of soil fertility which cannot 
be quickly restored in view of economic conditions. The urgent demand 

10 



for other food crops which command relatively higher prices tends to re- 
strict the expansion of sugar acreage, particularly in view of the fact that 
Europe cannot produce sugar as cheaply as Cuba and Java. Moreover, 
government support is no longer extended to the European industry in the 
same measure as formerly." It may be expected that the European industry 
will continue to increase its output, 1:)ut it seems apparent that for many 
years to come, a large part of European consumption reciuirements must 
be met from outside sources, such as Cuba and the otlier great cane growing 
regions. Because of natural advantages of location, Cuban sugars must play 
an important part in supplying the European market. 

United States Greatest Sugar Market 

The world's greatest individual market for sugar is the United States. 
In pre-war years, we consumed approximately one-fifth of the total world 
production of beet and cane sugar and in recent years our consumption has 
been about one-fourth. Neither high prices nor shortage have served to stop 
the upward movement of the consumption curve. For instance, in 1919 a 
year of high prices and shortage, the estimated quantity of sugar consumed 
in the United States was 4,067,671 tons, an appreciable increase over any prior 
year. There were also successive increases in 1920 and 1921, the estimated 
consumption of the latter year being 4,107,328 tons. Part of this increase of 
consumption in recent years has been due to the growth of the confectionery 
and soft drink business following prohibition, but part of it is the normal 
growth, characteristic of sugar consumption. It is estimated by Willett 
and Gray that over the past ninety-nine years, the average annual rate of 
increase in sugar consumption in the United States has been 5.216%. No 
other nation consumes such enormous quantities of sugar. 

Sources of ^^^^ svigar supply of the United States is obtained from our 

Our Sugar own beet sugar and cane sugar industries, and from Hawaii, 
Supply ^Yie Philippines, Porto Rico and Cuba. About one-half of our 

sugar supply is obtained from Cviba. It is oiily under abnormal conditions of 
prices in this market that cane and beet sugar from other parts of the world 
find their way into the United States market in any considerable volume. 
This is partly but not solely due to the special tariff concessions which we give 
our possessions and Cuba. 

The Beet Sugar Industry in the United States 

The beet sugar industry has been long established in this country, the 
first factory having been constructed at Northampton, Mass., in 1838. To- 
ll 



day the industry is mainly concentrated in California, Utah, Colorado, and 
Michigan. Even though favored by an early start, the industry has developed 
slowly. In 1895 beet sugar represented about 1% of our annual consump- 
tion. By 1911 the proportion had increased to 15.1%; and in 1921 it was 
about 23% of our annual consumption. In the last ten years, the industry 
has supplied on the average approximately 18% of our annual requirements. 

For the five years preceding 1920 our production of beet sugar declined 
each year, but high prices and added protection gave the industry a new 
impetus in 1920 and the maximum crop of 969,000 tons was produced. In 
1921 the output dropped to 911,000 tons and for the present season our 
crop will be only about 650,000 tons. This is a liberal estimate as the United 
States Department of Agriculture has estimated the present crop at 586,500 
tons. 

Handicaps Important economic and other causes hav^c seriously re- 

of Domestic strictcd the expansion of the beet sugar industry in the United 
Beet Industry states. It is true that certain companies are so situated with 
respect to natural advantages and to consuming centers that they are able 
to continue operations at a profit but a large part of the industry has a hazard- 
ous and struggling existence. Production of sugar beets requires much 
manual labor, which is often obtained with considerable difficulty. If the 
American farmer finds that he can make an equal or greater profit with less 
laborious effort, he quickly turns to other competing crops. Before the war 
our industry was dependent upon Germany for its seed supply. We have made 
some progress in recent years in raising suitable seeds but we apparently are 
not able to produce as cheaply and with as great success as Germany. Ac- 
cording to the U. S. Tariff Commission, about 20% of our production is de- 
pendent upon the protective tariff. On the whole, Yankee ingenuity has found 
that the domestic beet industry, in spite of the protective tariff", is less desirable 
for exploitation in a large way than the cane sugar industr}' of Cuba. 

Sugar in Our Eastern Possessions 

The cane sugar industries of Hawaii, tlie Philippines, Porto Rico, Louisi- 
ana and Texas supply an important part of our annual sugar consumption. 
In the pre-war years of 1912-14, these areas supplied on the average approxi- 
mately 31%; of our annual consumption, but in the post-war years 1919-21, 
the proportion declined to approximately 26%. In the following table, the 
percentages supplied by Hawaii and the Philippines are shown for specified 
years. 

12 



Per Cent United States Sugar Consumption Supplied by Hawaii 

and Philippines 

Year Hawaii Philippines 

1912 15.0% 3.8% 

1913 13.5%, 1.2% 

1914 13.6%, 3.2% 

1919 12.7% 1.8% 

1920 9.6%o 2.8% 

1921 11.7% 3.2%, 

Hawaiian Hawaii has long been an important sugar producer, but the 

Industry industry did not receive any great stimulus until 1876, when 

Hawaiian sugar was admitted free of duty into the United 
States. Since annexation in 1898 the industry has expanded rapidly, the 
maximtim production being 577,000 tons in 1914-15. For the present season 
the crop will be approximately 490,000 tons. 

Sugar production in Hawaii is carried on under a system of intensive 
agriculture. "Nowhere else," says the United States Tariff Commission, 
"is there so effective an application of highly specialized machinery to agri- 
culture, such extensive use of commercial fertilizers, such a comprehensive 
system of irrigation, such attention given to discovering and applying of the 
principles of scientific agriculture." Under this system Hawaii has obtained 
the largest sugar output per acre, but much of this production is at high 
unit costs and dependent upon the tariff bounty. It is said by competent 
authority that production in Hawaii has about reached the economic limit 
because nearly all of the suitable land has been planted. A few large com- 
panies control the sugar situation and have been responsible for the develop- 
ment of scientific cane culture. 

PhilioDine Sugar was produced in the Philippines by rather primitive 

Industry methods for many decades prior to the Spanish-American War. 

The modem development of the industry has been retarded by 
unsettled political conditions and a somewhat less favored tariff treatment 
than has been accorded to Hawaii. Since 1913, however, we have admitted 
Philippine sugar free of duty and there has been a considerable expansion in 
output. Over the last eleven years the maximum production of the Philip- 
pines was 332,000 tons in 1915-16. The output for the present season is esti- 
mated at 276,000 tons. 

The Philippine sugar industry is now being modernized and, at some 
futvire time, it is possible that the Philippines may become a large and impor- 

13 



tant sugar producer. One of the special difficulties in the islands, however, 
is the lack of a trained labor supply. The natural market outlet for Philip- 
pine sugar, because of the distance from the United States, is China. Under 
normal conditions of prices it seems very probable that Philippine sugars 
will not otl'er elTective competition in the United States market, but will 
continue to compete with those of Java, Formosa, and other eastern producers 
for the large and constantly growing Chinese trade. 

Louisiana and Porto Rico 

Neither Louisiana, Texas nor Porto Rico indixndually furnish a very 
large proportion of the total quantity of sugar consumed annual!}- in the 
United States. We present the figures for the pre-war years 1912-14 and the 
post-war years 1919-21 for these regions in the following table: 



Per Cent United States Sugar Consumption Supplied by Louisiana and 

Texas and Porto Rico 



1913 5.6<~o 8.8^ 

1914 3.8^^- 



Year Louisiana and Texas Porto Rico 

1912 7.3Cc 8.2f- 

, c o.a , c 

•To 7.3% 

1919 3.8'^; 7.1% 

1920 I.O^c 8-2% 

1921 6.6% 9.1% 



jjjg The sugar industry of Louisiana dates back to 1751, but 

Louisiana despite this long history it now occupies a position of declining 
Industry importance. Even with high tariff protection, the Louisiana 

industry has a somewhat precarious existence. L'nlike tlie gi'eat low cost 
cane-producing regions there are wide differences in climatic and soil condi- 
tions in Louisiana, as well as in manufacturing processes. Perhaps the chief 
difficultv is the shortness of the growing season and the cool winters. In 
Cuba several crops of cane can be cut from one planting: in Louisiana there 
is one plant and one stubble crop and then replanting. A s\-stem of crop 
rotation with cow peas must be followed iov the best results. For these and 
other reasons Louisiana is a high cost producer. Duinng the past elex'en 
years the maximum production of Louisiana and Texas was 322,000 tons in 
1911-12, and production fell to only 108,000 tons in 1919-20. For the present 
season, the estimated crop is 293,000 tons. The competitive influence of 
Louisiana sugar in the American market is of minor significance. 

14 



The Porto Sugar has been raised in Porto Rico since the early years of 

Rican the sixteenth century, but there was no notable development 

Industry q£ ^-^q industry until after American occupation. During the 

past eleven years the maximum output was 449,000 tons in 1916-17, and the 
minimum output was 308,000 tons in 1914-15. For the present crop year it is 
estimated that the total production will be approximately 385,000 tons. 

While some Porto Rican sugar is produced at relatively low cost, the 
major portion is produced at a cost considerably in excess of that prevailing 
in Cuba and certain portions of the West Indies. Climatic and soil conditions 
var>- widely. On the south side a large part of the product must be raised 
under irrigation, while on the north side the character of the soil and the 
excessive rainfall necessitates large expenditures for tiling and other drain- 
age. Much of the Porto Rican land has been devoted constantly to sugar for 
centuries and successful production now requires extensive use of commercial 
fertilizers which adds much to costs. Porto Rico is thickly populated and 
the available tillable land is so limited that it apparently is not possible to 
undertake an extensive system of crop rotation in place of the application 
of fertilizers. In various official investigations the inefBciency of Porto Rican 
labor as contrasted with that of the other regions has received extensive 
comment. Much of the Porto Rican production is possible only because of 
the tariff bountv. 




Gallieriiii^ ante on a Cuban sugar plantation 
1.5 



The Preferred Position of Cuban Sugar 

Cuban sugar, holds a preferred position in the United States market. 
Over the past ten years, Cuba has supplied an average of nearly 50% of 
our annual consumption requirements. The average percentages of our an- 
nual consumption supplied by Cuban, domestic, and insular producers in the 
pre-war period 1911-13 and the post-war period 1919-21 have been as follows: 



Periods 

1911-13 
1919-21 



Domest ic 


Insular 


Cuban 


22.7', 


26.1% 


47.6% 


22.7% 


22.0% 


49.5% 



It is apparent that even aside from political considerations arising out of 
our relationship to Cuba, the American public has a very ^-ital interest in the 
financing of Cuba's major industry. Indeed a large part of the splendid 
expansion of the Cuban industry has been due to the skill and enterprise 
of American capital. Why Cuba has become the world's foremost low cost 
producer and why the Cuban sugar industry offers excellent opportunity for 
sound and conservative investment will be more apparent in the subsequent 
paragraphs which discuss briefly the more salient features of the industry. 



Total United States Sugar Consumption and Amount Supplied by Cuba 

4,500,000 

4,000,000 

3,500,000 

o 3,000,000 

g 2,500,000 

o 

"* 2,000,000 

1,500,000 

1,000,000 

500,000 



















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1910 1911 1912 1913 1914 



1915 1916 
YEAR 



1917 1918 1919 1920 1921 



16 



Climate Cuba's supremacy as a low cost sugar producer is largely 

of Cuba due to especially favorable climatic and soil conditions, to- 

gether with proximity to the greatest sugar markets of the 
world. The sugar cane is a plant requiring warm temperatures and much 
moisture during the maturing months, if the most successful resvilts are to 
be attained. "The climate of Cuba," says an official study of the cane sugar 
industry, "is tropical and distinctly insular in characteristics of humidity, 
equability and high mean temperature. There are two distinct seasons, 
a dry season from November to April, and a hotter wet season from 
May to October. The average mean temperature of the island is about 
77° F. Temperatures below 50° or above 90° are rare. The highest record 
is 100.6° and the lowest is 49.6°. The average temperature of the hottest 
months (July and August) is about 82° and the coldest months (December 
and January) about 71°. The mean relative humidity averages about 75 
per cent and remains fairly uniform at all times of the year." 

Rainfall Unlike other important cane producing regions, rainfall in 

in Cuba Cuba, though abundant, is quite uniformly distributed through- 

out the island. Moreover, the major portion of the rainfall oc- 
ci.u"s during the hot summer months when it is most needed by the growing 
cane. "As a rule," says one authority, "the rainfall is least on the seacoast 
and greatest in the interior and there is little difference in rainfall between 
the eastern and western parts of the island. On the north coast the records 
kept give an average of 50 inches annually; on the south coast 45 inches; 
and in the interior, five miles from the shore, 60 inches." This adequate and 
well distributed rainfall makes imnecessary any extensive use of irrigation 
methods in Cuba. It is an important factor which tends to keep average 
costs lower than those of other cane growing regions. 

Fertility of The cane soils of Cuba are in general remarkably fertile, 

Cane Soils even in areas where cane culture has been carried on for gen- 
of Cuba erations. The geological explanation of this marvelous fertility 

is that the soil of Cuba is formed of the luxurious marine and animal vegetable 
growth of previous geological ages. Originally, what is now Cuba was part 
of the ocean bottom and over this area through the ages, great quantities 
of decomposed organic matter were deposited. In the later geological epochs, 
the island was pushed up out of the sea by some great volcanic disturbances 
and thus this great depth of rich organic sediment was brought to the sur- 
face. Nearly two-thirds of the island is covered with soils which have been 
derived from organic limestone of this character, although the red and black 
colors of the soils suggest little of their history. 

17 





The foUow-ing comment of J. T. Crawley, a cane soil authority, on the 
fertility of Cuban soils is also of interest : 

"The best sugar cane soils, both of Hawaii and Cuba are those in which 
there is a large percentage of lime. In Cuba, the lands are largely derived 
from limestone and therefore, this element rarely has to be supplied. Indeed 
I am persuaded that the great and lasting fertility of Cuban cane soil is due, 
in a large measure, to the lime content and to the fact that the cane trash 
is rarely burned off. The latter adds the organic matter necessary and in the 
presence of carbonate of lime, the nitrogenous material is changed to soluble 
nitrate which is so much needed by the plant." This natural fertility 
of the Cuban cane soil, combined with the plan of leaving the cane trimmings 
in the field makes it minccessary for the industry- to expend large sums for 
expensive commercial fertilizers in order to produce satisfactory crops. In 
other regions, such as Hawaii, Louisiana, and Porto Rico, much of the pro- 
duction requires their use and hence is more costly than that of Cuba. 



Ratoon 
Crops of 
Cane 



The lasting fertility of Cuban soils makes it possible to grow 
many ratoon crops of cane without the expense of replanting, 
and this is in part responsible for Cuba's preeminence as a low 
cost sugar producer. There is considerable variation in the number of ra- 
toon crops harvested on different ]jlantations, but se\-en or eight crops are 
common. In the more favored parts of the island, on the better plantations, 
the number of ratoon crops may run as high as from twelve to fifteen. Some- 
times twenty or more ratoon crops are cut from a single planting. In Java, 
the great majority of the crop is planted annualh\ while in Louisiana there 



18 



cane fields separated by pre roivs 

is one plant crop and only one ratoon crop. In Mauritius it is not common 
to grow more than three ratoon crops and in Hawaii, only two ratoon crops 



Planting of 
Cane in 
Cuba 



Agricultural Operations in Cuba 

When jungle lands on the eastern end of the island are 
cleared for cane plantations, the planting is a simple matter. 
In preparing virgin forest lands, no plowing is done; the trees 
are cut down and allowed to drj^ The valuable timber is removed; the 
remainder is burned, or that part of it which is dry enough to burn; the sttmips 
and unbumed part of the trees are allowed to lie on the ground. When the 
land has been cleared in this manner the planting consists of making holes in 
the ground with a wooden pole shod with iron or with an iron bar. Cuttings 
are dropped into the holes and covered with earth. The cane thus planted 
grows from 12 to 14 months before being harvested. Notwithstanding the 
little care given m the planting, the cane once started, yields a profitable 
crop which is followed by ratoon crops for six to eight years or more with 
practically no cultivation. When the cane ceases to produce a paying crop 
of ratoons, or about eight years after the first planting on the average, the 
decayed stumps and parts of trees left on the ground are gathered together 
and bunied. The land then receives its first plowing, and is planted to cane 
as in other countries. It is then allowed to ratoon for another eight or ten years 
before it becomes necessary to replant. On the older western cane lands, the 
initial preparation of the soil for the crop is of course more thorough than 
on the neAver plantations in the eastern end of the island. 

19 



. The sugar cane is planted in rows, and as it has a thick 

of Cane foHage, the ground is soon thoroughly shaded. This shade 

keeps down the weeds and aids in retaining moisture. On the 
newer lands, particularly, there is little expense for weeding because the dense 
jungle has not been favorable to the propagation of weeds, but in some parts 
of the island, notably on the older plantations, their elimination is accom- 
plished at considerable expense. If the weeds become serious, they are cut 
down with the hoc or machete. This must be done in the early months 
before the foliage becomes too dense. 

. The cane begins to ripen in December and the harvesting 

of Cane season extends through the month of Jvme. Some centrals how- 

ever grind much later. The sugar cane is cut close to the grovmd 
with a harvesting knife called a machete. It is stripped of its leaves, and its 
tops, and then cut into convenient lengths of three or four feet. These cut 
canes are conveyed from the fields to the loading stations in ox-carts. Indeed 
the ox-cart has proven to be the most economical and efficient method of 
transporting cane in the field. It is interesting to note the survival of this 
primitive form of transportation in an industry which is famous for its 
splendid automatic mechanical devices. 




Cane on the 'Jsay to Oc made into sugar 
20 



Transpor- Each plantation has its system of railways leading to per- 

tation manent loading stations. Cane is conveyed from these stations 

System ^^ ^^^ sugar factory in modem cane cars, usually built of steel 

and having a capacity of from twenty to twenty-five tons. The modem 
and most generally accepted type of cane car is arranged with sides to swing 
out, being hinged at the top and held at the bottom or platform of the car by 
special clips which are easily released, from the end of the car. When the cane 
is delivered to the weighing stations at the factory, the actual manufacturing 
of raw sugar begins. 

Agricultural Systems in Cuba 

The cane crops of Cuba are grown vmder two distinct systems of agri- 
culture: (1) the administration system; (2) the colono system. Under the 
administration system, the planting, cultivation, and harvesting is carried on 
by the sugar company directly. Only a small part of the Cuban crop is ad- 
ministration cane, but in Hawaii, practically all of the cane is grown under 
this system. It has some advantage in making possible the best develop- 
ment of scientific and highly specialized cane cvilture, where such intensive 
agriculture is necessary. 

P , Under the colono system the cane is planted, cvdtivated and 

Cane harvested by independent farmers, known as colonos. It is 

said that about 80% of the sugar crop of Cuba is made from 
colono cane. This system has been aptly described in a government study 
entitled "The Cane Sugar Industry" as follows: 

"There are several kinds or types of colonos. The independent colono 
grows cane on his own land. Others grow cane on the company lands, the 
use of which is given to them without any rental charge or for a nominal sum. 
Still other colonos grow cane on lands leased to them by third parties. Colo- 
nos may finance their own planting, in part or entirely, or they may secure 
advances of money from the company or from third parties. The method of 
paying for cane from colonos almost universally used in Cuba is to give the 
colono either a certain percentage of sugar on the weight of the cane deliv- 
ered or its money equivalent. Usually liquidation is made twice monthly 
at the average price of sugar in Habana or other port for the current period. 
From 4}/2 to 73^ tons of sugar, or its money eqiaivalent, are paid to the colono 
for every 100 tons of cane he delivers. In the more fertile or virgin soils in 
the Provinces of Oriente and Camaguey, where less cultivation and prac- 
tically no fertilizing are necessary, the prices range from 4}/^ to 5}4 tons of 
sugar per 100 tons of cane, while it reaches the maximum of 73^ and in some 
cases 8 tons of sugar per 100 tons of cane on the older sugar lands in the 

21 



Provinces of Santa Clara, Matanzas and Habana, where the colono has to 
employ more labor in the cultivation, fertilizing and sometimes the irrigation 
of cane, and also because two or more factories compete for this cane in 
these older sugar Pro\'inces where the factories are close together." 
Colono vs ^" considering the relative advantages and disadvantages 

Administra- of the colono and administration systems of cane culture, there 
tion Cane -g j-pally only one consideration of importance from a financial 
standpoint and that is the question of cost. On the whole the Cuban indus- 
try has found that under prevailing conditions the colono system has impor- 
tant advantages. Many of the sugar companies, however, raise some admin- 
istration as well as colono cane, their policies being dictated by conditions 
and costs. 

From Juice to Crystal 

Raw sugar manufacture is carried on in a factory which, with all of its 
appurtenances, is known as a "central." A modem sugar mill on the better 
plantations in Cuba represents a large investment because of the elaborate 
mechanical eqviipment required. When the cut canes reach the sugar mill 
they are conve^-ed automatically to a stand or set of corrugated rolls and 
are gi^'en a preliminary crushing which breaks down and shreds the cane 
stalks. The juice in the cane is then squeezed out by nmning the shredded 
cane through several successive stands of the rollers. There are three rollers 
to each stand — two large parallel rollers in the same horizontal plane and 
immediatelv above them a smaller roller parallel to the larger ones. Between 
the large rollers is a trough in which the juice is caught as the cane is crushed 
and from which it is pumped to the purif^-ing tanks while the bagasse or fibre 
part of the cane is automatically conveyed to the boiler room of the factory 
for use as fuel. 

The juice is now ready for ptirification and is treated with lime and heated. 
The heat causes the hea\aer and muddy impiunties to sink to the bottom 
of the purifying tank and the Ughter impurities to appear on the top as scum. 
Between the upper and lower layers of impurities is the clear cane juice. 
This clarified juice is drawn from the tank to be evaporated and the scum 
and other impurities are pimiped to the filter presses where additional juice 
is recovered and added to the clarified juice already extracted. 

At this stage the juice is a thin mixtiu-e containing about 85% water and 
the next step in the process is the evaporation of this water and the reduc- 
tion of the juice to the syrup point. This is accomplished in an apparatus 
known as the multiple evaporator. The s\Tup is then ready for boiling in 
the vacuum pan, a cylindrical vessel with a dome-like top and a conical 
bottom. The vacuimi pan makes it possible to boil syrup in a vacuum at 



low temperatures and this process is carried on until minute grains or crystals 
of sugar are formed. The sugar boiler adds new juice from time to time in the 
boiling process and the crystals are gradually built up to proper size. The 
crystals which are in a mixture with the residue liquor or molasses, are then 
ready for removal from the vacuum pan. While the mixture is warm, it 
is conveyed to the centrifugal machine which is essentially a brass cylinder 
with small perforations and is surrounded by an outer casing. The cylinders 
of the machines are revolved at high rates of speed and the molasses is ex- 
pelled from the mixtures by centrifugal force through the perforations in the 
cylinders into the outer casings from which it is removed for further use or 
sale. If the sitgar crystals are still too moist after being treated in this ma- 
chine, they are dried by hot air currents before being bagged. As the sugar 
polarizes at about 96°, raw sugar manufactured in this manner is known as 
"96° centrifugal." 

The ceiitrifugal machines do not remove all of the molasses and other 
impurities from the sugar crystals, and hence they have a brownish appearance. 
This necessitates further refining before the sugar is ready for use. Cuban 
sugar is not refined to any considerable extent on the island, but is sold 
in the raw state to the refiners of the United States and other coimtries. 



Growth of Production in Cuba 

Sugar cane was introduced into Cuba in the early part of the 16th Cen- 
tury, but it was not until after the Spanish-American War that conditions 
became favorable to the expansion of the industry on a large scale. The 
Spanish administration of Cuba had been notoriously incompetent and the 
repressive features of Spanish colonial administration had fomented insturec- 
tion and rebellion. In spite of numerous handicaps, however, sugar production 
in Cuba reached slightly more than 1,000,000 tons in 1894 and 1895. In the 
latter year the rebellion began which brought on the 
Spanish-American War and finally led to the indepen- 
dence of Cuba. During this period of warfare many sugar 
mills, much growing cane and other properties were de- 
stroyed and the output of the industry dropped to the 
low level of about 212,000 tons. After the Spanish- 
American War the industry revived as rapidly as condi- 
tions would permit and by 1903-04 production was ap- 
proximately 1,040,000 tons. The industry was given 
new life by the influx of American capital into the island 
and in succeeding years the crop increased rapidly. For 
the season 1911-12, the total yield was 1,912,000 tons. 



3 7S00O0 JY 














aimon U 

S 1.750000 1- ~f Ay - ~ 

IMHOOO rj; ■ - .j/V -^'- 












898-99 
900-01 
90;-03 
904-05 
906-07 
908-09 
910-11 
912-13 
914-15 
916-17 
918-19 
920-?! 



23 



The crops for the pre-war seasons 1912-15 and post-war seasons 1919-22. 
have been as follows : 

Cuban Sugar Crops 

(Thousand Tons 
Season Crop Season Crop 

igi2-13 2,420 1919-20 3,730 

1913-14 2,598 1920-21 3,936 

1914-15 2,593 1921-22 (Estimate) 4,000 

Today Ctiba is the world's greatest sugar producer. The estimated 
crop for the present season will be approximately 1,500.000 tons greater 
than that of British India and more than double that of Java, the next largest 
producer. The present crop is nearly three times the German beet sugar 
crop of the season 1921-22. This pre-eminence of Cuba as a producer of nearly 
one-fourth of the world's sugar, has been in part due to the natviral advantages 
of climate, soil and location, but full credit must also be given to the indi\nd- 
uals — both Cuban and American — whose business sagacity and genius have 
directed this wonderful development. 

Normally more than three-fourths of the exports of sugar 
from Cuba from Cuba are to the United States. In pre-war years only a 
small fraction of the Cuban crop found its way to other countries, 
but the necessities of European consumers on account of the decline of the beet 
industry have led to increased exports in recent years to the United Kingdom 
and other European coimtries. The United States is a great natural 
market for Cuban sugars and Cuba has the further advantage of prefer- 
ential tariff treatment. 

Cuba and the Tariff 

Under the terms of the reciprocity treaty between the United States and 
Cuba, approved by Congress December 17. 1903. imports of Cuban products 
into the United States are assessed tariff duties 20*^ less than those imposed 
upon like products of other foreign countries. The treat>- also pro\-ides for a 
reciprocal reduction of 20^ to 40^ on products of the United States imported 
into Cuba. Cuban sugar has therefore a 20^ tariff preference in the United 
States market as compared with other foreign sugars, and products of the 
United States have a similar preference in Cuban markets as compared with 
like products of other nations. Since the present duty on 96° raw sugar is 
2.206 cents per pound, Cuban sugar pays a duty vinder this reciprocity pro- 
vision of 1.7648 cents per pound or .4412 cents less than sugars from foreign 
countries. ^Miether our tariff is re\nsed downward or upward, as long as 
this treaty remains in force, Cuba will have this 20^ advantage as compared 
with other foreign countries. 

24 



Advantage of ^^^ ^^ must not be thought that this tariff concession given 
Reciprocity to Cuban products by the, United States is without compen- 
■ satory advantages. The reciprocity provision has given the 

American farmer and manufacturer a large and growing market in Cuba for 
their products. The importance of this market is partially shown by the 
dollar value of otir imports from and exports to Cuba in recent years. 

Years Exports to Cuba Imports from Cuba 

1919 $278,391,222 $418,610,263 

1920 515,208,731 721,693,880 

1921 187,726,179 230,374,341 

Our Political ^^^^ people of the United States have a very direct and im- 
Relationship portant interest in the prosperity of Cuba's sugar industry and 
to Cuba there seems to be little likelihood that our tariff" laws will ever 

be so changed as to seriously injure the chief industry of the island. It has 
been said that the stability of the Cuban government is conditioned upon her 
economic prosperity and that by virtue of the existing political relationship, 
we cannot avoid our obligation to facilitate particularly this prosperity. Our 
whole public policy toward Cuba has been built upon this principle. Prior 
to the enactment of the reciprocity treaty Elihu Root, then Secretary of War, 
said, "Aside from the moral obligation to which we committed ourselves 
when we drove Spain out of Cuba, and aside from the ordinary consideration 
of commercial advantage involved in a reciprocity treaty there are the 
weightiest reasons for an American public policy rounding in the same direc- 
tion, for the peace of Cuba is necessary to the peace of the United States; 
the independence of Cuba is necessary to the safety of the United States. 
The same consideration which led to the war with Spain now requires that a 
commercial agreement be made luider which Cuba can live." The late 
President Roosevelt in his first administration declared that our assistance 
in maintaining the commercial prosperity of Cuba was "demanded not only 
in our interests but by our honor." It would seem that the United States is 
morally bound to frame its tariff" legislation with this fundamental principle 
in mind. 

The Story of Three Eventful Years 

The sugar indvistry has recently emerged from what has been perhaps 
the most severe commercial depression in its history. Its troubles, however, 
have been similar to those experienced by many other industries in 1920 and 
1921, but in the case of the sugar industry they were greatly aggravated by 
continuation of government control and uncertainty regarding the date of its 
termination. Probably the sugar industry will never again face a combination 
of circumstances similar to those which prevailed in 1919, 1920 and 1921, 

25 



because these conditions were largely the aftermath of government control. 
A brief review of the sugar market for these three years will ser\'c to make 
jilain the chief causes of the industry's recent troubles. 

„ .. , , The year 1919 opened with the sugar situation in the United 

Sugar States closely controlled by the United States Sugar Equali- 

Market zation Board. The 1918-19 crop of Cuban sugars had been 

purchased and the price was fixed at 7.28 cents per povmd duty 
paid in New York. In January, the British Royal Commission made ar- 
rangements with American refiners for refining on toll 300,000 tons of raw 
sugar, but it was several weeks before the Commission could secure shipping 
facilities to move the refined product. In February stocks of both raw and 
refined sugar began to accumulate antl this accumulation was further stim- 
ulated by the harbor strike in New York in March. To relieve the situa- 
tion the Board announced that considerable quantities of sugar had been 
contracted for by foreign l)uyers and that, in \-iew (if the general conditions, 
it would be wise for the public to accumulate stocks of sugar. Country-wide 
publicity was given to this announcement and after the long period of severe 
restrictions, it was only natural that consumers should hurriedly attempt to 
increase their stocks. In the months following this announcement, domestic 
consumption was at a high rate and the export movement also attained con- 
siderable volume. The shortage of sugar in this market became so serious 
that exports were restricted in order to supply the domestic demand. Had 
imports and prices not been under control of the Board at this juncture, it 
seems probable that considerable quantities of foreign sugar would have 
been marketed here and future troubles largely avoided. 

As control of the sugar market was expected to terminate in December, 
there was active bidding for the new Cuban crop by both domestic and 
foreign buyers and prices moved upward. In the fall of the year, the At- 
torney General approved a maximvmi i)rice of 18 cents for Louisiana plan- 
tation granulated and the market was further stimulated. It was officially 
announced that after December 1st, no licenses would be required for importa- 
tion of sugars from Cuba. On account of advancing prices and the increasing 
shortage of supplies. Congress was urged to take the necessary action to 
protect the consvuner. The result was that the McNary Bill was passed 
which empowered the administration to control the situation by such plans of 
purchase and distribution as were deemed necessary in the public interest. 
The administration, however, did not act under this law, but deemed it 
advisable to depend only upon the anti-profiteering and general license 
provisions of the Lever Act. For most practical purposes the Sugar Equaliza- 
tion Board ceased to fvmction December 31, 1919, and during that month 
raw sugar prices rose from 7.28 cents to 12.79 cents per poimd. The way 
had been paved for the runaway market of 1920. 

26 




'Mr a 





Grinding 
tlic siiijar 
raiw 



Review of the During the spring of 1920, there continued to be a shortage 
Sugar Market of sugar and it was not until August that a real open market 
*" was established. The idea of shortage prevailed throughout the 

world, and domestic and foreign consumers competed with each other in se- 
curing their necessary supplies. Another factor in the situation was the 
successive reductions in the early estimates of the Cuban crop. Prices rose 
rapidh' and in May the high level of 23.57 cents per pound was reached. There 
was no government control of the industry, but the Department of Justice 
instituted numerous suits under tlie anti-profiteering provisions of the Lever 
Act to prevent profiteering, hoarding and speculation, which was rampant 
at this particular time. It should be remembered, however, that speculation 
in this period was not confined to the sugar market. The abnormally high 
prices prevailing attracted foreign supplies from more than 50 countries and 
sugar was even imported from the interior of China. It became apparent 
during the second half of the year that the abnormally high prices could not 
be maintained and many speculators began to make realization sales. Mean- 
while, the country was entering into the first .stages of the recent business 
depression. Sugar prices began to fall and the decline continued for several 
months until by October 1st, the price of 96° centrifugal raw sugar with 
duty paid had reached 9 cents per pound. The sudden and drastic decline 
in sugar prices produced a crisis in Cuba and on October 11th, it became 



necessary to declare a moratorium. In the following months prices continued 
to fall and the moratorium was extended. 

o .. , , The year 1921 was tinprofitable for the Cuban sugar industry 

the Susiar for sugar prices continued to decline and stocks acciunulated 
Market in large volume. In February of 1921, the Cuban Sugar 

Finance Commission was created to take control of the sale 
and shipment of the 1920-21 sugar crop. Prices, however, continued in an 
irregular downward movement and liquidation of stocks was very slowly 
accomplished. By the end of December the price of 96° centrifugal raw sugar 
at New York \\ath duty paid had declined to 3.42 cents. The advantages which 
had been claimed for centralized control of the marketing of the 1920-21 crop 
by the Commission were not fully realized and to the relief of nearly every 
one concerned it was terminated December 31st. At this time there was on 
hand in Cuba a stock of approximately 1,225,000 tons of sugar and a new 
crop of considerable size was the immediate prospect. The sugar industry 
closed the year in a state of acute depression. It was prophesied that it 
would be at least two years before it could recover its normal position. 







Modern methods and equipment are used in this Cuban sugar factory 

28 



The Return to Normalcy 

The events of the past six months have proved that these prophecies 
were undioly pessimistic. Seldom has a great industry recovered from an 
acute depression with such rapidity as the sugar industry in recent months. 
This recovery has evidenced itself in increased prices, in the liquidation of 
stocks, in increased exportation of refined sugar from the United States and 
in a phenomenal increase in our domestic demand for sugar. The extent of 
this recovery in each of these respects may be briefly stated. 

The average price of 96° centrifugal raw sugar c. & f. in the 
Prker'"^^* period of 1909-13 was 2.704 cents. At the close of 1921 this 
grade of sugar was quoted at 1.84 cents c. & f. or considerably 
below the pre-war average. The improvement in prices, however, began in 
January, and in succeeding months average prices moved steadily upward 
and on October 16, raw sugar c. & f. was sold at 3.75 cents. This price is sub- 
stantially above the average prevailing price in the pre-war period. In the 
following table we present the average prices per pound for raw and refined 
sugar in the pre-war and post-war years. 

Average Prices Raw Sugar Average Prices Refined Sugar 

CSlF. No Duty Paid Wholesale 

(1909-13) Average 2.704C 4.880fi 

1919 Average 6.354 9.003 

1920 Average 11.337 11.390 

1921 Average 3.459 6.207 

1922 

Jan 2.05 4.95 

Feb 2.14 5.06 

Mar 2.31 5.28 

Apr 2.44 sis 

May 2.44 5.43 

June 2.98 5.93 

July 3.54 6.63 

Aug 3.56 6.94 

Sept 3.17 6.47 

Oct. 1-17 3.60 6.62 

Liquidation ^he Cuban sugar industry closed the year 1921 with stocks of 

of Sugar raw sugar of the 1920-21 crop equal to approximately 1,225,000 

Stocks tons. This was a tremendous carry-over, for normally Cuban 

stocks of raws are small at the close of the year. During the past six months 
this stock has been rapidly liqmdated and on September 30 there were only 
7,918 tons of this old sugar on hand. Not only have these stocks been 
liqmdated, but to September 30 the industrj^ had produced 3,971,694 tons 
of 1921-22 crop sugars, of which it exported to this same date 3,421,703 tons or 
approximately 86%. There remain on hand in Cuba after making allow- 
ance for domestic consumption, only 430,409 tons of new and old sugars. 
It is apparent that the Cuban industry will close the year in a very secvire 
position with only small stocks on hand. 

29 



Revival of ^'^^^ '^^ ^^^ substantial improvement in the sugar situation 

Sugar in recent months has been due to the revival of our export trade 

Kxports -j^ refined sugar. In the pre-war years 1911-13, our maximum 

sugar exports were only slightly in excess of 35,000 tons, but beginning in 
1914. they expanded rapidh- and the peak figure of 703,863 tons was reached 
in 1916. During 1917-18, exports of refined sugar fell off but in 1919 they 
increased to 658,664 tons. In spite of the world wide business depression 
of 1920 and 1921 and the depreciation of foreign exchange, our exports were 
aroimd 415,000 tons of refined sugar in each of these two years. There has 
been an improvement of business conditions abroad and the exchange situa- 
tion is now materially better for the more important consumers. Up to 
October 4 of the present year, it is estimated that we have exported 805,000 
tons of refined sugar or more than ovir exports in any previous single year. 
Exports since Jimuary 1st of the present year have been nearly three times 
those of the similar period in 1921. Not only have we exported unprecedented 
quantities of refined sugar during the first nine months of the year, but ex- 
ports of raw sugar from Cuba to England and the continent of Europe have 
been more than 1,000,000 tons. Considering merely the present crop of 
Cuban sugar, exports of raw sugar to Europe have been over three times 
what the}' were for a similar period last year. Foreign as well as domestic 
consumption of sugar has shown a substantial increase in recent months. 

Increased Foreign demand has been of importance as a factor in the 

Domestic improved sugar situation, but it has been the greatly increased 

Consumption fjomestic consimiption of sugar which has been chiefly respon- 
sible for the rapid recovery of the sugar industry to normal conditions of 
supply and demand. According to Willett & Gray, the United States con- 
siomed 2,781,218 tons of sugar in the six months ended June 30, 1922. This 
is at the rate of abovit 5,500,000 tons per annum as compared with a con- 
sumption of 4,107,328 tons last year. While consumption in the latter part 
of the year is usually somewhat less than in the first six months, there is 
every reason to believe that this year will be a record year in the volume of 
sugar consumed in the United States. In this connection, Willett & Gray 
obser\'e that the present rate of consumption is almost that which would 
normal!}- be expected if it had increased at the same average annual rate 
as over the past 99 years — namely, 5.216^^. This tremendous increase 
in consumption of sugar demonstrates the inherent stability of the industry 
when freed from arbitrarv restrictions and control. 



30 



The Supremacy of Climate and Soil 

Cuba holds a stategic position in the world's sugar industry because its 
natural and other advantages have combined to make it the most important 
low cost producer. In the production of sugar the cost of cane or beets is 
the most important single item of total costs. While it is difficult, if not 
impossible, to secure up-to-date representative itemized costs for the sugar 
industry in various producing regions, the following tabulation based on pre- 
war experience, gives a clear idea of the relative importance of various items 
of costs and the position of Cuba; 

Average Pre -War Costs Per Ton 
of Beet and Cane Sugar Produced in Various Regions 





Cost of Cane 
or Beets 


Factory 
Costs 


Marketing 
Costs 


Depreci- 
at ion 


Total 
Costs 


Domestic Beet . . 


$50.17 


$23.17 


$7.52 


$5.10 


$85.96 


Cuba 


20.20 


7.89 


5.24 


1.42 


34.75 


Hawaii 


35.68 


5.85 


13.84 


2.78 


58.15 


Louisiana 


66.91 


20.44 


2.81 


3.08 


93.24 


Porto Rico 


41.02 


10.00 


4.27 


2.73 


58.02 



The table indicates that the cost of domestic beets per ton of sugar produced 
is nearly two and one-half times the cost of cane in Cuba, while Louisiana cane 
costs are slightly more than three times, Porto Rico two times and Hawaii 
about one and three-fourths times those of Cuba. Costs today have risen 
in all areas as compared with pre-war experience Vjut Cuba undoubtedly 
still retains its relative advantage. 



Cuba's 

Impregnable 

Position 



Why Cuba holds an impregnable 
position in the sugar industry is 
also clearly shown by the per pound 
costs of Cuban and competing sugars which have 
been compiled at various times by official in- 
vestigators. Perhaps the most thorough inves- 
tigations which have been made in recent years 
regarding sugar costs are those of the United 
States Tariff Commission made for purposes 
of aiding Congress in framing tariff legislation. 
As not all sugar producers turn out refined 
sugar, the Commission found it necessary to reduce 
all costs to a raw sugar basis for fair comparison. 



Cost and Freight Prices 
g6° Cuba Centrifugals 



YEAR 

1909 

1910 

191 

1912 

1913 

1914 

1915 

1916 

1917 

1918 

1919 

1920 

1921 



Jan. 

Feb 
March 
April 
May 
June 
July 
Aug, 
_Sept. 



AVERAGE PRICE PER LB, 
—■2,646* 

■ lilit 

• 3,090«^ 

' 2.804(^ 
i2,150< 
-2,745^ 
— 3,626(i 
^-"-4,767^ 
^^"■5,208* 
^-i^5,014« 
-^^—■6,354^ 



■ 3,459c 




||1337« 



31 



These comparative costs as compiled by the Commission are presented 
in the following table : 

Per Pound Costs Reduced to Raw Basis 

tCents per Pound) 
Region Prewar 1916-17 1917-18 1918-19 

Cuba* 1.700 2.904 3.931 4.104 

Domestic Beet .. 3.492 3.287 4.199 6.002 

Hawaii .. 2.898 3.853 5.339 5.196 

Louisiana 4.101 3.963 5.692 9.304 

Porto Rico 2.828 4.229 4.568 5.802 

It is apparent therefore, that in both the pre-war and post-war periods, 
average Cuban costs are materially below those of other producing regions. 
In making this statement, however, it should be imderstood that the costs 
quoted are only average costs and that in all areas there are certain individual 
producers whose costs may be above or below the average quoted. The 
sugar business, however, is a highly competitive business and it is only the 
low cost producers which can most successfully withstand the rigors of this 
competition. 

Significant Features of a Basic Industry 

Sugar is an indispensable modem food. The demand for sugar is re- 
markably stable, being little influenced by depressions and expanding with 
the growth of population and rising standards of living. Between two-thirds 
and three-fourths of our annual consumption is in direct household use but 
since prohibition, non-household use is becoming increasingly important. 
The American people have invested more than 81,000,000,000 in the sugar 
industry of Cuba, a siim greatly in excess of our sugar investments in other 
individual regions. 

The commercial sugars of the world are obtained from the juice of the 
sugar beet and the sugar cane. The beet is a crop of the temperate zone 
while cane is grown in semi-tropical and tropical regions. The beet must 
be planted annually and requires much manual labor. The cane as grown 
in Cuba ordinarily requires little attention during the months of growi;h and 
from twelve to fifteen ratoon crops may be grown from one planting. The 
beet industry' suffers severely from the comj^etition of other crops but in 
Cuba the cane industry has little competition of this character. The beet 
industry was built up by a system of government bounties and high tariff 
preferentials, but even prior to the world war it was losing its relati\-e im- 
portance, due to the economic advantages of raising sugar cane in Cuba and 

• Duties on «X)° Cuban centrifugals have been as follows: 

Dec. 27, 1903 to Mar. I. 1014 1.3480c. 

Mar. I. 1914 to May 27, 1921 1.0048c 

May 27. 1921 to Sept. 21. ro2j 1.6000c. 

Sept. 21. 1922 .1.7648c. 

32 



other semi-tropical and tropical regions. The European beet industry today 
has not yet regained its pre-war standing and it seems to be the consensus 
of opinion that it will be many years before the industry will fully recover. 
It is this great decrease in European beet sugar production on account of 
the war which accoiints for the fact that world production of sugar in the 
present season will be nearly 1,000,000 tons vuider the figure for the crop 
year 1914—15. While beet sugar production has declined, cane sugar pro- 
duction has shown only a normal and healthy growth. 

The world's greatest individual market for sugar is the United States. 
We seciire our supply from our own beet and cane sugar industries and 
from Hawaii, the Philippines, Porto Rico and Cuba. The production of beet 
and cane sugar in the United States and of cane sugar in our insular possessions 
is in a large measvire dependent upon the tariff bounty, and other economic 
factors operate to restrict any large increase in production in these areas. 
For many years we have been dependent upon Cuba for about half of our 
annual sugar requirements. 

Cuba is the world's foremost low cost sugar producer because of unusually 
favorable climatic and soil conditions. St:gar cane has been produced in Cuba 
for cent-uries but not until after the Spanish American War did conditions 
become favorable for a considerable expansion of the industry. For the 
present season it is estimated that Cuba will produce 4,000,000 tons as com- 
pared with 2,429,000 in the season 1912-13. Cuban sugar enjoys preferential 
tariff treatment in the United States market, being imported at a reduction of 
20% from the regular duties. Our political relationship with Cuba, if not 
our economic relationship, reqviires that American public policies continue 
to be so directed as not to menace the prosperity of Cuba's major industry. 

The sugar depression through which we have passed was in part due to the 
speculative fever which prevailed in nearly all lines of enterprise, but the chief 
causes of the troubles of the industry were the uncertainty regarding 
termination of government control and certain policies inaugurated during its 
continuance. The sugar industry of Cuba closed the year 1921 with an 
unprecedented stock of approximately 1,225,000 tons of sugar on hand. 
Prices were low and the industry was in a state of acute depression. 

Freed from government interference and arbitrary restrictions the Cuban 
sugar industry has in the last six months retiuned to normal conditions. 
This return to normalcy has manifested itself in increased prices, in the 
liquidation of stocks, in a phenomenal increase in our domestic demand, 
and in an increased exportation of refined sugar from the United States. 
The sugar indvistry of Cuba is fvmdamentally sound. Low production costs 
have given it an impregnable position among the world's producers. 

33 



0^ . '■'.V'- 









!»?•* --^^ ..-^ 



/4 typical Cuban "Central" or sugir 

The Manufacture of Raw 
Cane Sugar 

The growing of sugar cane and the manufacture of raw sugar under 
modem methods are pretty much the same in all parts of the tropical 
world. There are differences in detail which are made necessary on accoimt 
of local conditions, principally cost of labor, fertility of soil, rainfall, etc. 
In Hawaii it has been found of great advantage to support an experi- 
mental station where the various varieties of cane best suited to the lands are 
developed. Cuba has not yet been forced to reach this high point of develop- 
ment, but very rapid strides have been made in the past fifteen years. The 
island has such vast expanses of land in its virgin state, that it has not been 
found necessary to use the intensive cultivation and fertilization of other 
countries. 

While the manufacture of raw cane sugar in the various countries is similar 
in a general way, the factories differ in design and method of operation — 
designs accepted as the best in the Hawaiian Islands would not meet with 
approval in Cuba nor would those designed for Cuba be accepted in the 
Hawaiian Islands or any of the Far Eastern countries. In subsequent 
paragraphs, the factory and methods employed in Cuba in manufacturing 96° 
raw sugar will be briefly described with a minimum use of technical terms 
for the information of the layman who wants a knowledge of the process only 
in a general way. 

34 




factory showing loaded cane cars 



To understand clearly the process of making sugar, it is 
Manufacture ^^^ential to keep in mind the following steps in manufacture ; 
1. Weighing and keeping of complete records. 

2. The extraction of the juice from the cane. 

3. The purification or clarification of the juice. 

4. The evaporation of about 75% of the water, reducing tlie juice to a 

syrup. 

5. The concentration and crystallization of the syrup. 

6. The drying of the crystals or grains in preparation for the market. 

7. The bagging of the raw sugar and stacking in the warehouse 



Weighing and Unloading 

The cane is received at the scales, and a complete record is 
Weighing kept of the weights of the cane and the field on which it is grown, 
as well as the fanner or colono who has raised it. Storage yards 
are provided close to the factory so that siifficient cane may be stored to 
keep the factory in operation during the night, as it is customary to operate 
24 hours per day, closing down only on Sunday or a part of Sunday, for the 
purpose of making slight repairs and cleaning machinery. 



Unloading 
the Cane 



After passing the cane scales, the cars are placed alongside 
the cane carrier which feeds the mills. The system of unloading 
the cars of cane to the carrier differs in various centrals, de- 
pending upon local conditions. The commonly used method in Cuba has 

35 



many advantages, as the cane is usually conveyed in large cars. The carrier 
is provided with an endless moving platform placed about 10 feet below the 
surface of the ground. It is wide and long enough to receive all of the cane 
from a 20 or 25-ton car. This moving platform is sometimes placed horizon- 
tally or on a slight incline. If there are two tandem milling plants installed 
in the factory, or if it is expected that there will be two, the moving table is 
usually placed at right angles to the cane carrier and elevator for convenience 
in arranging the railway tracks. The car is placed on a tipping table, to which 
it is held by clamps and is tipped to an angle sufficient to allow the cane to 
discharge onto the moving table. After the car is emptied the table resumes 
its horizontal position, the empty car is removed to the storage tracks, and 
another loaded car is placed on the tipping table. The handling of cars from 
the scales to the tipping table and from there to the storage yard is usu- 
ally done by means of an electric or steam winch. The moving table is driven 
by a steam engine or an electric motor and is so controlled that an even feed 
of cane is deposited on the cane carrier. 



^ ^ . The cane carrier is of approximatelv the same width as the 

or Elevator length of the rolls employed in the crushing of the cane. It is 
formed by two or three strands of chain supported by rollers. 
Wooden slats are bolted to the chains at right angles to the direction of travel. 
The construction is somewhat similar to the moving table just referred to, 
but the carrier need not be so substantiallv built. 



Extraction of Juice 

The modem milling or crushing plant which extracts the 
Crushers juice from the cane usually consists of one or two crushers, each 

having two rollers with interlocking or corrugated teeth or with 
deep grooves on the circumference of each roll. These rollers are set close 
together and held in place by hydraulic jacks. The cane passing through is 
broken and crushed into pieces and matted into an even layer. 



36 




Molasss 
now Tank 












Molasses 
Root ranks 


1 




. 






finilj^^ 




Supf 
EInator 


Supr 
ElevatOf 




nna! m 

Tanl 






1 4 






f 




Sopr Scile 




Holassts 
Sola 




\ 




f 




B« 




Molasses 
StouK Tnt 



Rollers 



From the crusher or crushers the mat of cane is passed to 
the mining plant proper, which usually consists of a train of 
from four to six 3-roller mills set in tandem. The rollers of each 
mill are set in a trian^^ular position with one top roller and two bottom rollers. 
A heavy bar called the returner bar is placed between the two bottom rollers 
for the purpose of leading the cane which passes between the top roller and 
first bottom roller to the opening between the top roller and discharge roller. 
The usual size of the rollers is from 34 to 36 inches in diameter and from 6 to 7 
feet in length. They are held together by heavy housings fitted with hy- 
draulic rams exerting a pressure of from 400 to 600 tons on the top roller. 
These rollers are driven by engines or electric motors through a train of double 
reduction gearing, the shafts being directly connected to the toj:) rollers of 
each 3-roller mill. The gearing is so arranged that the peripheral sjieed of the 
rollers is gradually increased from the first to the last inill. The average 
speed of the rollers is about 3 revolutions per minute. A slow speed is nec- 
essary to allow the cane to be under pressure a sufficient length of time to 
properly extract the juice. 

The process of extraction may be compared in a simple way 

Masceration iq j^j^j^t of cleansing a sponge by immersing it in water and 

expelling the water under pressure, immersing it a second time 

in water and expelling it under pressure as before. B\- repeating this process 

several times the sponge will soon be cleansed. It is so with the extraction of 

sugar or sucrose from the cane fibre. It has 
been fomid to be of advantage to apply a 
certain amount of fresli warm water between 
the last and next to the last mills. This applica- 
tion of water is known as masceration. The 
crushed cane as it comes from the crusher is 
passed through the first 3-roller mill and as it is 
discharged from tlie rollers it receives a spray 
of water or dilute cane juice. An automatic 
conveyor receives the cane from the first mill 
and feeds it to the second mill, where it receives 
a second crushing; also a second spray of water 
or dilvite juice. 11ius it passes from mill to mill 
until practically all of the juice has been 
extracted from the cane fibre. The juice 
coming from the last mill of the train 




contains comparatively little 



and 



Crushing the cane 



.^S 




Milling 
Plant 



by returning this juice to the cane before it passes into the second mill the 
amount of fresh water required in the maceration process is reduced. It must 
be remembered that all the water added to the juice must again be evaporated, 
and as steam is required for evaporation, it is important to use as little water as 
possible consistent with the percentage of sugar extracted. 

The juice from the various mills is caught in a shallow metal pan and led 
to a trough where it is passed over a fine screen to remove all of the small 
pieces of cane fibre. 

In well-designed modern mills, with cane carrying not over 
Waste ^2% fibre, more than 98% of the sugar in the cane is extracted 

and the remainder is left in the fibre of the cane. This fibre or 
woody part of the cane is known as bagasse and is comparatively dry when it 
leaves the last set of rollers. In the best milling work the moistiire has been 
reduced as low as 36% of the weight of bagasse. As the fibre comes from the 
last mill it is conveyed directly to the furnaces miderneath the boilers and in a 
modern raw sugar factory with cane containing 113^% fibre, no other fuel 
than bagasse is reciuired for generating all of the necessary steam to operate 
the factory. The boiler plant is usually of large capacity and automatic 
conveyors are employed for the purpose of firing or stoking the boilers. The 
ashes from the burned bagasse are returned to the fields as fertilizer. 

39 



Clarification 

The juice as it comes from the mills contains impurities, such 
Heatitift ''^ ^''''^' small pieces of cane fibre and other foreign matter in 

addition to gum, salts, wax and albumen. It is necessary to 
remove most of these impurities. There are several methods now in use and 
the chemist in charge of the factory decides to a certain extent the treatment. 
So long as the juice is confined in the cane it does not readily ferment, except 
when the cane is burned before cutting. In such cases it must be worked up 
into sugar as soon as possible. When the juice is extracted, it rapidly under- 
goes a change and no time is lost in arresting this action. It is pumped into 
the liming tanks where it is treated M'ith a solution of milk of lime in order 
to neutralize the acidity. It is then pumped into closed heaters which are 
usually of a cylindrical shape about 4 feet in diameter and 20 feet long, resting 
horizontally on frames about 2 feet above the floor. These heaters are fitted 
with copper tubes expanded into cast iron heads and are arranged so that 
the juice passes through the tubes; steam is admitted to the space between 
the tubes and the outer shell. The heaters are set up to permit operation in 
series or in parallel. When in series, the low temperature vapors form the 



Juice scales, liming 
tanks, settling tanks 
and crystallizers 




40 




Filter 
Presses 



heating meditmi in the tirst ceU and Hve steam m the second cell. The juice 
passing from the tubes of the first cell to the tubes of the second is gradually 
heated to a temperature of about 210° F. 

The heat causes the lime to combine rapidly with the im- 
Settling purities in the juice, which is discharged into open settling tanks 

where the insoluble solids settle to the bottom, carrying with 
them vegetable and other matter held in suspension. The lighter substances 
rise to the surface of the tanks forming a scum. The length of time allowed 
for settling of the juice in each tank is fixed by the chemist in charge and is 
usually in the neighborhood of one-half hour. The settling tanks are arranged 
in rows. As the juice comes from the heater, each tank is filled successively 
so that by the time the last of the series is being filled, the first tank has had 
an opportunity to settle, the clear juice has been drawn oft", the mud and scum 
have been washed from the tank and it is ready for refilling. After settling, 
the clear jtiice is decanted from the tanks to the evaporator supply tank. In 
some factories it is passed through a mechanical filter which removes an 
additional amount of impurities. The mud and scum are drained into other 
tanks where lime is added. The mass is then stirred and pumped into cachaza 
tanks where it is again allowed to settle, the clear juice being decanted in the 
same manner as from the settling tanks. The final mud and other impurities 
are then pumped to filter presses where an additional amotuit of clear liquor 
containing a small portion of sugar is separated. 

There are a nvimber of difi'erent types of filter presses, but 

Presses those generally in use at the present time rest horizontally on 

the floor and are niade up of layers of cast iron corrugated plates 

covered with cotton filter cloth laid between the plates and hollow frames. 

When the press is dressed complete with filter cloths over the corrugated 

41 



plates alternating with hollow frames, a pressure is put (jn the plates and frames 
holding them in place. They are so arranged that the mud can be forced 
into the hollow frames allowing the juice to filter through the canvas to the 
corrugated plates where it is caught and drained to a receiving trough below. 
In passing through the presses under heavy pressure the sediment, scum and 
other impurities are caught on the canvas cloths. A certain amount of hot 
water is forced through the presses which takes with it a portion of the sugar 
remaining in the scum and mud. When the press is completely filled and the 
sugar recovered, the mud is then released from the press by opening the frames 
and removing the cloths. This mud is valuable as fertilizer and is conveyed 
to the fields. The clear juice from the settling tanks, the cachaza tanks and 
filter presses is collected in the evaporator siip])l\' tank ready to be reduced 
to a syrup. 

Evaporation 

Water boils under atmospheric pressure at sea level at a 
Effects ^ temperature of 212° F., and sugar juice a few degrees higher, 

according to the density. If this temperature is applied to 
the cane juice for a great length of time, it will have a tendency to bum 
and destroy the sugar, but higher temperatures can be applied to the cane 
jtiice for a sliort time without deterioration. The usual clarified cane juice 
contains in the neighborhood of 85% water and 15% of solid matter. About 
75% of the water is removed in an apparatus known as an evaporator. 
The evaporator usually consists of four cells called a quadruple effect 
evaporator, or it may have five or in some cases six cells, known as 
quintuple or sextuple effects. 

The usual type of construction is a vertical cell with the lower section 
forming a calandria with copper tubes inserted vertically into tube sheets, 
the juice passing through the tubes and the steam or vapors being held between 
the outer shell and the tube sheets. The juice enters the first cell and partially 
covers the heating tubes. Steam at about five poimds pressure is admitted 
to the calandria, causing the juice to boil and circulate through the tubes. The 
vapor liberated from the first boiling is conductedthrough vapor pipes directly 
into the heating calandria of the second cell and the juice from the first cell 
passes into the juice side of the second cell and from the second to the third 
and the third to the fourth. Vapors from the last cell are conducted directly 
to a condenser. As there is little pressure above the liqviid in the first cell, 
it boils at about 215° to 220° F. A vacuum of approximately 5 inches is 
maintained in the second cell and the temperature at which the liquid will 
boil is reduced to about 203°, so that the vapor from the first cell is hot enough 
to boil the juice in the second cell. As the vapor from the second cell passes 

42 



to the heating calandria of the third cell under a vacuvmi of approximately 
15 inches the vapors are hot enough to boil the juice in the third cell and 
the vapors from this cell passing to the fourth cell calandria under a vacuum 
of approximately 26 inches, bring the final boiling down to a temperature 
of about 150°. Therefore, we have had four successive boilings of juice, re- 
ducing the temperature in each cell without adding any additional live steam. 
Vacuum gauges are fitted to each cell of the evaporator so that the operator 
may at all times know the vacuiun carried. Test tubes are also fitted to the 
syrup side of the evaporator to permit the operator at any time to test the 
density. In maintaining a vacutmi on this apparatus a vacuum pump is 
required in addition to a supply of cold water. The vapors passing to the 
condenser come in contact with the cold water and are condensed, the air and 
non-condensable gases being drawn off through the vacuum pump. 



Vacuum 
Pans 



Concentration and Crystallization 

The evaporator discharges the syrup into a syrup tank from 
which it is pumped to the highest floor of the factory building 
or what is known as the vacuum pan floor. A series of tanks are 




Vacuum Pans — where sugar crystals are formed 
43 



arranged Uj recci\'c the syrup. \'acuuni pans similar in eonstruction to a 
single cell of the evaporator, with dome-like tops and conical bottoms, with 
heating surface arranged as a calandria. with top and bottom tube sheets 
connected by copper tubes or with a series of copper heating coils, are used for 
boiling syrups to a crystal. Leading from the top of the pan is a large vapor 
pipe connected with a condenser. On the conical bottom is a large valve which 
may be opened when the boiling is finished and the massecuite, or mixture 
of crystals and molasses, is dropped into a receiving tank. 

The general principle involved in the boiling of sugar is the 
lization separation or crystallization of the sucrose contained in a solution 

from the impurities, and this is accomplished by evaporation. 
A portion of syrup is drawn into the vacuum pan as a charge, steam is turned 
into the heating calandria and boiling begins. After the sugar is once formed 
into fine crystals, these crystals attract the sucrose in the solution and continue 
to grow in size rather than form additional crystals. By properly timed 
admission of fresh concentrated juice, the crystals are provided with additional 
sucrose, and thus the building up continues until the crystal has reached the 
size desired by the sugar Ijoilcr. The crystal is pure sugar. The impurities 
remain in the mother liquor and are carried ofT as molasses. It is not possible 
to boil all of the syru]j and molasses down to a crystal and at the same time 
separate the pure sucrose from the impurities; therefore, enough moisture 
must be left in the massecuite to permit separation of the crystals in the 
drying process. 

The Drying of the Sugar Crystals 

When the sugar boiler decides that the massecuite has been 
Mixers boiled to a proper density the whole contents of the vacuum 

pan are dropped into a receiving tank called a mixer. This mixer 
usually is held just beneath the crystallizer floor and is of V-shape. To the 
bottom of this mixer are attached machines used for separating the crystals 
from the molasses. The mixer is equipped with paddles which are revolved so 
as to keep the massecuite warm and prevent it from hardening before it 
has been dried in the centrifugals. 

From the mixer the massecuite runs through gates into 

Machines centrifugal machines for the purpose of drj'ing. The centrifugal 

basket is of tub shape suspended in the center by a spindle which 

is held at the top in a bearing attached to the bottom of the mixing tank 

44 




Two Batteries of 
Centrifugal 
Machines Show- 
ing Mixers Above 



supports. The outer part of the basket is perforated and hned with a fine 
screen. There is a steel curb placed around the outside of the basket to 
collect the molasses. A charge of massecuite weighing several hundred 
pounds is led into the centrifugal basket through the gates in the bottom 
of the mixer and the basket, which is propelled by a belt or a motor directly 
connected to the spindle, is then started and turns at a speed of about 1000 
to 1200 revolutions per minute. The molasses percolates through the 
wall of sugar and fine screen and is thrown off by centrifugal force. After the 
basket has been revolved for a few minutes, all of the molasses has been 
separated from the sugar crystals. It is then brought to rest and the sugar 
crystals discharged through the bottom of the centrifugal into a conveyor 
placed horizontally below the floor. 



Bagging and Storing 

This conveyor takes the sugar to an elevator which deposits it into a 
bagging bin having a conical or V-shaped bottom. 

45 



The sugar bags are held beneath the bottom of the bin on specially ar- 
ranged trucks and by opening a gate the bag is filled with sugar. In some 
of the later designed factories automatic weighing scales are placed beneath 
the bagging bins and the sugar is automatically weighed and discharged into 
the bags. The bags are then stacked by automatic machinery until shipped 
to the United States or other countries for refining. 



Molasses 

The molasses which is separated from the first boiling of 
The Chief sugar is again treated with heat and is pumped to supply tanks 
on the vacuimi pan floor. A part of it is drawn into the vacuum 
pan with the first syrups in boiling a strike of sugar. The balance of the 
molasses not taken in with the first syrup in the first boiling receives a second 
boiling in a vacuum pan similar to the No. 1 sugar but this No. 2 mas- 
secuite is discharged into large cylindrical tanks called crystallizers. These 
tanks have heavy steel shafts passing through them from end to end, to which 
are fastened scrolls or paddles and are driven by worm gearing from the out- 
side. A strike of No. 2 massecuite received from the vacuum pan into 
a crystallizer is kept in motion for several days; the shaft and paddles in the 
crystallizer revolving at about one revolution in three minutes. As the mas- 
secuite cools sugar crystals are formed and by continuous stirring are moved 
about so that they come in contact with small particles of sucrose and continue 
to grow in size imtil they have absorbed the greater part of the crystallizable 
sugar. The massecuite is then dropped into a centrifugal mixer and is dried 
similarly to the No. 1 sugar. The residual molasses is pumped to a tank 
outside of the factory and is sold to distilleries for making alcohol or other 
spirits. When there is no market for alcohol, molasses is used in making 
of cattle food or is sometimes burned under the boilers with the bagasse. 
The final molasses contains potash and is sometimes burned in special fur- 
naces for the purpose of recovering potash to be used as fertilizer. 



Chemical Control 

Every mill is provided with an extensive laboratory where 
^lence in skilled chemists are constantly engaged in sampling and analyz- 
ing the cane, raw juice, syrups, sugars and molasses. This is 

46 



one of the most important feattires in the production of raw sugar. There is 
a superintendent of manufacture who has charge of the Chemical Depart- 
ment and he is held responsible for the recovery of sugar from the cane. From 
the beginning to the end of the process of manufacture, the Chemical Depart- 
ment is continually on the alert, sampling and testing and analyzing to see 
that the loss of sucrose in the final molasses which goes to the distillery, in 
the bagasse which goes to the furnaces and is burned, and in the press cake 
which goes to the field as fertilizer, is reduced to the minimum. In the best 
factories the total loss in maniifacture is below 2%. 

It will be readily seen that in the best and latest design of raw cane sugar 
factories all parts of the cane are utilized, the principal by-product being the 
final molasses. 




Sugar crystals — bagged and ready for shipment to refineries. 



47 




I'RIXCIPAL CORRESPOiXDF.NT OFFICES 



Albany 

Ten liyck Building 
Telephone 6090 Main 

Atlanta 

66 North Broad Sireet 
Telephone 7541 Ivy 

Atlantic City 

Chalfonte Block 

Telephone Atlantic City "-ig 

Baltimore 

Charles & Fayette Streets 
Telephone /-t/l Plaza 

Boston 

10 State Street 
Telephone 8100 Main 

P.IFFALO 

F.llicott Square Building 
Tel. (Bell) 2472 Seneca 

Cm icago 

137 So. La Salle Street 
Telephone 7200 Randolph 

Cincinnati 

4th National Bank Building 
Telephone 422 Main 

Cleveland 

riuardian Buihling 

Telephone (Bell) 763 Ontario 

Davenport 

Putnam Building 
Telephone 7935 Main 

Denver 
718 Seventeenth Street 
Telephone 1475 Main 

Detroit 

743 Hriswold Street 
Telephone 2632 Cherry 

Hartford 

Conn. Mutual Building 
Telephone 2-3175 

I.VIiIANAroLIS 

Fletcher Sav. & Tr. Building 
Telephone Circle 7800 



Kansas City 

1017 Baltimore .Avenue 
Telephone 2706 Main 

Los .Angeles 

513 West 6th Street 
Telephone 10203 

Louisville, Ky. 

Marion K. Taylor Building 
Telephone Main and City 3384 

Me.mphis 

Bank of Com. & Tr. Co., Bldg. 
Telephone (Postal) 119 
(Cumberland) 1083 and 1241 

MlLWALKEE 

First Wis. Xat'l Bk. Building 
Telephone 2590 Broadway 

Ml.XNEAPOLIS 

Builders' Exchange Building 
Telephone 8060 .Xtlantic 

Newark 

Kinney Building 
Telephone 1943 Market 

Xew Orleans 

301 Baronne Street 
Telephone 6863 Main 

Omaha 

Fir.st National Bank Building 
Telephone 3316 Jackson 

Pasade.va 

Citizens Savings Bank Bldg. 
Telephone 385 Colorado 

Philadelphia 

1417 Chestnut Street 
Telephone 5400 Locust 

FlTTSl'.L-RC.II 

Farmers' Bank Building 
Telephone 5926 Grant 

Portland. Me. 

Union Mutual Building 
Telephone 6905 -Main 

Portland. Ore. 

Veon Building 
Telephone 6072 Main 



Providenxe 

12 Westminster Street 
Telephone 3262 Lnion 

Rochester 

Wilder Building 
Telephone 4464-5-6 

Sa.v Diego 

I'nion Building 
Teleidlone 264 Main 

.'^AN Francisco 
424 California Street 
Telephone 921 Kearny 

Seattle 

Iloge Building 
Telephone 2254 Elliott 

St. Louis 

415 Olive Street 
Telephone 7140 Olive 

Saint Paul 

State Savings Bank Building 
Telephone 248 Cedar 

Washington 
74115ih Street. \. W. 
Telephone 3176 Main 

Wilkes-Barre 

Miners' Bank Building 

Tel. (Bell) 2120 Wilkes-Barre 

Montreal, Canada 
74 Notre Dame Street West 
Telephone 6493 Main 

Toronto, Canada 

10 King Street East 
Telephone 6120 Main 

London, E. C. 2, Eng. 
No. 34 Bishopsgate 
Telephone London Wall 1737 

Geneva. Switzerland 
1 rue de la Tour de I'lle 
Telephone 51 89 

ToKio, Japan 

Tokio Kaijo Building 
Telephone 1615 Marunouchi 



Main Office: Xational Citv Bank Buildins, Xow ^ork 

Uptown Office: National City Buildint; (j2nd St. at Madison Ave.) 

-l/orc than f;o Offices in the United States and Canada 

The Xational City .Safe Deposit Company, 42nd St. at Madi.son .\veniie, N. Y. 



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